Letter by Lin Tse

Presentation The letter by Lin Tse-hsu of China to Queen Victoria of Britain was composed not long before the Opium wars. This book, along with crafted by others, encourages us a great deal in understanding what occurred. Numerous researchers have given their perspectives with respect to a letter to Queen Victoria of Britain by Lin Tse-hsu (Waley, 1958).Advertising We will compose a custom basic composing test on Letter by Lin Tse-Hsu explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The contention degenerates from whether the war was intentional to Britain. Others note that it was the surprising effect of industrialization while others accept that came about to a war of disfavor to Britain. It is commonly worthy to state that the most established domain and the most forceful plain of the ninetieth century went into war. The last obviously rose triumphant. The Author The content is a letter composed by Lin Tse-Hsu. He was usually alluded to as Commissioner Li. He was the Chinese magistrate to Canton, who was guaranteed advancement as a senator if China developed triumphant. Different sources demonstrate that he was really the legislative leader of Hope and Hunan. This was during the rules of Qing Emperor Tao Kuang of Manchu Empire of China. The creator had quite recently picked up fame, yet here and there, the war that was later named the Opium war prompted the two his impermanent ascent and inevitable defeat. A few sources even demonstrate that he composed an article while on his approach to banish communicating his dissatisfactions, yet again demanding that there was no elective alternative to sidestep the war. The focal Argument The letter calls attention to issues that were of extraordinary outcome to the global framework at that point. In the first place, the letter was discretionary because of the degree of strategy that the Chinese realm had shown at that point. During Tao Kuang’s rule, opium importation to China by British and Dutch Merchant s had arrived at its peak. The bigger tea exchange between the political pioneers of these nations occasioned this pattern. It had made a class of addicts and had along these lines become a social issue. This had spread broadly with the end goal that different sources show the Qing lost his psyche due to over dose At this level, the issue takes national significance. The specialists along these lines talked about the essential courses of activities. The content even says that Qing thought of it as his obligation to ensure his subjects. The letter expressed that the British attempted a few activities that made it a criminal offense to smoke opium. Different sources demonstrate that Qing raised the issue conversation. There are the individuals who suggested that it must be legalized.Advertising Looking for basic composition on asian? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They contended that its sell must be allowed, however must be co ntrolled. The utilization must be controlled and the domain needed to get charges. Those contradicted to it remained on moral grounds that whenever permitted to circle, the realm would wind up without a populace (Ssuyu, Fairbank, 1954). Lin Tse-Hsu drove this gathering. He further contended that the domain would have a powerless armed force for there would be no individuals sufficiently fit to serve in the order powers. His certainty and the passing of his child persuaded Qing to restrict sanctioning. He was then entrusted with the obligation of putting to an end what had become a national catastrophe. It really doesn't bode well to condemn smoking of opium in Britain however permit its kin to exchange the equivalent globally. England constrained the Chinese realm to legitimize it after the war. Relationship The article identifies with worldwide industrialization and colonialism. Different sources demonstrate that the letter was send to the Queen through a British companion of Li. T he British Empire was on the ascent and exceptionally forceful. Colonialism is the creation and support of inconsistent monetary force dependent on subjection. It is accordingly simple to state the letter was conveyed to the officers of the British armed force. The Britons additionally needed to overwhelm monetarily. The military quality of the British couldn't be contrasted with that of the Chinese. Though the British had advanced gunnery, the Chinese armed force was undeveloped, undefined, and needed clear order. The distinction in mechanical advancement likewise assumed a job References Ssuyu T., Fairbank, J. (1954). Cambridge China’s reaction toward the West, Harvard: Harvard University press. Waley, A. (1958). The Opium War through Chinese Eyes. Stanford: Stanford University Press. This basic composition on Letter by Lin Tse-Hsu was composed and put together by client East0n to help you with your own investigations. You are allowed to utilize it for examination and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; be that as it may, you should refer to it in like manner. You can give your paper here.

Factors led to American Revolution Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

Components prompted American Revolution Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers 11/19/2015 HIST 131-007 Dr. Adeyinka Banwo Elements prompted American Revolution The association among Britain and the English states was that of the decision of the provinces by the lord of Britain, King George III and his parliament. The lords administering was entirely ominous for the pilgrims in light of his domineering tyranny and shamefully tariffs. The idea of an island administering a whole landmass a large number of miles away with poor correspondence and absence of oversight of the provinces by the ruler, didn't work for the settlements nor for Britain. Three contributing elements for the flare-up of the American Revolution were the rulers duties and disregard of the 13 provinces. Ruler George III and his choices were one of the significant causes that had the English settlers raged with outrage towards Britain and this in the long run prompted the American Revolution. Ruler Georges Taxes The principal reason of the American Revolution was the pioneers shock over tax collection which prompted an expense revolt propelled by individuals who were sick of the weight of making good on out of line charges. In 1754, the British battled the French for the last of four wars which were the French and Indian War. It was a battle to see who might administer in North America, and it was won by the British. Regardless of their triumph, the British were profound into obligation, and they burdened the settlements to raise their spending plan. In 1765, the Quartering Act and the Stamp Tax brought commotion from the settlers. The Quartering Act constrained the settlers to house and feed British Soldiers with no extra cash given to them. Huge numbers of the homesteaders didn't have the cash to take care of the fighters, so it made them stray into the red which influenced the money related side of the networks since they were so poor. After the Quartering Act, the British welcomed on the Stamp Tax that was the main direct expense on the homesteaders. A gathering known as the Sons of Liberty was shaped and they drove a blacklist against the British burdening asserting that there ought to be no tax imposition without any political benefit. The duty changed the financial matters of the settlements, making them lose cash quickly, however the blacklist returned counter against the British. Since the British were done getting cash from the pioneers to take care of their obligation, their accounts were enduring, setting off the annulment of the expense. In 1767, British Parliament passed Townsend Acts on the pilgrims tea, paper, paint, lead, glass, and numerous different things that were utilized day by day and the settlers were against this burdening. The reason for the Townsend Acts was to help pay the expense of government in America. The issue for some, American homesteaders was that the settlements were not counseled about the new assessments, as they had no portrayal in Parliament. The pilgrims didn't have any democratic rights to the expenses, so to maintain a strategic distance from settle the charges, the pioneers boycotted British merchandise, and the occasion prompted the Boston Tea Party and different blacklists. Disregard of the 13 Colonies and First Continental Congress The following explanation of the American Revolution was the disregard of the 13 states from the Britain King George. Ruler George removed their privileges to self-government in America and the settlers were dealt with unjustifiably in contrast with the British individuals. As a result of the lords refusal to comply with the laws, it made it simpler for the pioneers to oppose the ruler and the Parliament. The settlers were not offered indistinguishable rights and benefits from the English residents in Britain. The English residents from Britain were offered fitting tax collection, advantages of preliminary by jury, authority over private homes as in where a trooper couldn't burst in to rest and substantially more. The pamphleteer and columnist Thomas Paine distributed his handout Common Sense that turned into an achievement in enormous part. It recognized the established setting of the debate among Britain and the provinces, squashed that viewpoint in light of the fact that as long as Americans stayed inside it, it would detain them and keep them from taking the autonomy. Along these lines, Paine wrecked the significance of the British protected framework as an underwriter of freedom and as steady with reason and human needs. Expansion, he changed the contention

Its Longer To Be Type Here gt;gt;gt;gt;gt; It Is In The

Its Longer To Be Type Here gt;gt;gt;gt;gt; It Is In The Its Longer To Be Type Here It Is In The Assignment Criteria: â€" Essay Example > Information Technology IntroductionInformation Technology can be defined as the set of the tools, processes and also methodologies (like coding or programming, communication of data, conversion of data, storage and retrieval, analysis of the systems and design, control system)and equipment that are associated with information collection, processing and its presentation. Information Technology includes the office automation, telecommunications and multimedia. Information technology can also be defined as the study, design, development, support of the implementation and computer based information systems management. Information Technology also relates to computer hardware and software applications. Information Technology deal with the use of computers software and electronics to convert and store the information as well as protect, process and transmit the same information with security. Information Technology is also the term to refers to all forms of technology that is used to cre ate, store and even exchange as well as utilizing information in its various forms including the business data, still images, conversations, multimedia and motion presentations (Ezine articles, 2008). Information Technology is a technology that is of general purpose. It is a main resource of the organizations human and capital resources. Labor was the most important resource in the agricultural age, this changed in the industrial age to capital being the vital resource. It is believed that in the post industrial age, information will be most significant resource. There are several forces that are making it responsible for the role of information to change in various organizations. These include intense competition from other organizations forcing organizations to be more effective and efficient. Globalization of the Business operations is also another factor that is making the role of the information and technology to change, this is mainly due to change of procurement, manufacturi ng and also marketing operations that require the use of the information and technology to reduce the space and time barriers. The organizational changes and also technology revolution are other forces that influence the role of information technology. Effects of Information and TechnologyInformation Technology has really changed the way we think drastically, the way we live and also the environment in which we live in. It has changed the whole range of the political, economic, social and also cultural phenomena’s. The information and technology is the key aspect for globalization and also dynamic change of human existence as being the key by product of present globalization of the information technology globalization. The information and technology has to some extent changed the way the groups are developing and even the way they are being formed. This is mainly because of the extended utilization of the technology. People are now moving towards forming the groups on the intern et and forgetting the groups that they meet in places, they are rather forming groups that are connected globally through the internets. The way people used to meet and know each other face to face forming groups has now changed very much and they now meet and chat in the internets forming various groups of friends without necessarily meeting each other face to face (Buzzle. com, 2009).

The end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second World War - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1205 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? Question 1 The world created between the end of the First World War in 1919 and the beginning of the Second World War in 1939 was one of the economic and social depression as well as one filled with political unpredictability which marked existence of ideologies. In this regard, I totally agree that the interwar period should be remembered as a time of deep political instability and upsetting economic and social vicissitudes that was relentlessly by the prospect of another war. During these era, people were in lookout for fundamental solution to the radical hitches, and many began to believe that the solution could only be found in various ideologies. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second World War" essay for you Create order This era can be categorized as a period of naà ¯ve idealism that was filled with failed experiments as a consequence of the ideologies. As a result, people started believing in communism, fascism, democracy such as the American promise of democracy and imperialism. As a consequence of these believes, the great depression came to existence due to effect of capitalist economy associated with democracy. In the countries which were relatively strong, their government stepped in to facilitate provision of relief to their citizens which shifted many democratic nations to become socialists. Contrary to this, military took control of the government in the weaker countries seeking to provide security. For the poor, communism seemed to work relatively well as it provided solutions to the prevalent problems they had succumbed to. This was because the core belief of the communism was that wealth was to be shared equally among all the citizens. However, the communism and equal sharing of resources is what the upper class feared the most and thus government that would protect them was formed which was against the communist revolut ion. This gave a rise to fascism. The whole of the â€Å"isms† was as a result of the rise various governments around the world which was opposite of what Wilson had envisioned. As highlighted below, these believes gave rise to what happened in the interwar period. Imperialism In the interwar period, various countries adopted the ideology of imperialism. Nationalism was the main concept that acted as a motive mostly for European countries to begin the imperialism. Essentially, imperialism existed in three forms; colonies, protectorates and sphere of influence. The main goal of the imperialism was to expand and extend powers of a country and influence through diplomacy and the military force. As a result, these brought about the effects of political instabilities that escalated the beginning of the Second World War. Nevertheless, imperialism had positive effects as the colonies created in African had access to improved education and sanitation. American and the Promise of Democracy The promise of democracy was anticipated by president Wilson with his vision of a peaceful world filled with self-determined and governments that practiced democracies. Not only in United States, people all over the world were fighting for their right to participate in decisions made by the government. However, democracy and capitalist economy were to blame the economic consequences that resulted. This economic consequences led to great depression. In essence, it can be seen that democracy and capitalist espoused economic theory that exacerbated the occurrence of the Great Depression. Communism and Fascism These are two main ideology that came to live during the interwar period. Essentially, the ideology of communism revolved around the aspect of equal sharing of resources among the citizens. Communism carried with some theoretical beneficial ideas which included, equal treatment of people whereby every person was treated equally regardless of their financial standing and education, every citizen was entitled to a job as well as it created an internally stable economic system. However, the rich could not withstand the ideology behind communism. As a result, they came up with an ideology that opposed communism-Fascism. The ideal nature of fascism was that it operated as antidemocratic, anti-Marxist and it was racist. However though, fascism would prioritize the welfare of the society, led to speedy decision making process as well as promoted social economic equality. The Great Depression The interwar period is also associated with the great depression. The great depression show the beginning of the economic crisis that was encapsulated with low business activity which begun with the stock market crash in 1929. This economic crisis is believed to have been brought about by the capital economic linked with the democracy. In conclusion, the highlighted and diverging ideas among the countries mostly in Europe caused the interwar period to be one that contained various economic crisis, political instability which consequently resulted to eruption of the Second World War Question 2 The Second World War begun in September 1939 when both France and Britain declared war to Germany following the invasion of Poland by Germany. The cause of the Second World War was brought by many aspects that revolved around the interwar period.   However, this aspects were brought about by the fact that Germany refused to sign the outcome of the treaty of versatile. Various ideology that existed during the interwar period caused Germany to continue with their style of expanding Germany territorial land failing to honor the treaty of versatile. In this regard, I disagree with the statement that the origin of the Second World War cannot be explained by the failures of the treaty of versatile. This is because, the cause of the war was much revolving around the terms highlighted in the treaty. To begin with, France and Britain declared war with Germany due to the German’s desire to use aggressive war to turn Germany from a regional power to become a global superpower. This was also the cause of the First World WAR. The versatile treaty main purpose was to control Germany from such kind of acts after the First World War. Generally, the terms of the versatile treaties were; War guilt clause that needed Germany to accept the blame of commencing the First World War. Territorial Clause which indicated that some land would be taken away from Germany. Disarmament that allowed Germany to have only small army and six naval ships with no tanks and submarines. Reparations whereby Germany would pay 6600 million pounds to pay for the damage caused by the war. Germany were unhappy with this and they declined the treaty claiming that it was too harsh. What followed in the interwar era saw Germany through the governance of Adolph Hitler breaking the treaty of versatile when he begun re-arming themselves. Consequently, the Prime Minister of Britain Neville Chamberlain believed that Germans had totally undergone of the limits in relation to the versatile treaty and as a result there was Munich agreement of September 1938 which Germany went further to disagree with it as they continued to expand their territorial boundaries with an aim of creating the Germany Empire. This caused both the France and Britain to feel betrayal and they formed what was called the League of Nations. However, the League of Nations was not effective in preventing Germany from accomplishing their plans. As a result, France and Britain declared war on Germany after it invaded Poland and this commenced the Second World War. In this regard, all the events that caused the o utbreak of this war were linked with failure of Germany to honor the Treaty of Versatile.

Teamwork, Collaboration, and Conflict Resolution - 999 Words

Teamwork, Collaboration, and Conflict Resolution Caroline Errar, Anne Smith, Mary Ap, Starling Loyd MGT/311 02/23/2013 Rocco Natale Teamwork, Collaboration, and Conflict Resolution The text book describes conflict as â€Å"a process that begins when one party perceives another party has or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about.† There are different views on dealing with conflict. There is the traditional view that seeks to eliminate any conflict and the interaction group that seek to use conflict as a stepping stone to greater things. Conflict can arise in any situation and, following the managed conflict view, it is not necessarily something to be push under the table but something to†¦show more content†¦Among the five strategies the one I appreciate the most is competition. Competition is useful in other avenues as well as conflict management, such as academics. Although competition does require a loser it does a good job of stimulating teams to put out best efforts. Further, competition saves time when there is a deadline looming. When working in a group conflict is an inevitable matter that one cannot esc ape, there are varieties of conflicts; ideas, opinions, beliefs, culture differences, and desired accomplishment. Everyone have different ideas and goals in accomplishing their tasks, therefore, it might be difficult to be dealt with amongst one another if they cannot come to an agreement or have an open mind for new things. Conflict in a group could mean that there is a diversity of believes, aims, and ideas. It indicates that team members are contributing their part, sharing their different point of view and trying to make a different. As a manager, one should not look at conflict as a bad thing; instead tolerate minimum conflict in a group as a way of motivation and a development method for improvement or exchanging ideas to reach their goals. However, if conflict increase and cannot be settled in a professional or peaceful manner, as a manager, I would use the collaboration strategy method to help solve the issues. I would start to request each team members to do their own participation and write down their ideas with aShow MoreRelatedTeamwork, Collaboration, and Conflict Resolution973 Words   |  4 PagesRunning head: COMMUNICATION Communication University of Phoenix Teamwork, Collaboration, and Conflict Resolution SOC/110 Ken West Feb 17, 2010 Communication The way in which people communicate is as varied as the languages spoken throughout the world. People cannot just exchange a few words, there must be an understanding and acceptance of these variations or there will be a breakdown in the communication process. 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Industrial Marketing Management Free Essays

string(28) " is proposed and discussed\." Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 The impact of information technology on supply chain capabilities and firm performance: A resource-based view Fang Wu a, Sengun Yeniyurt b, Daekwan Kim c, SR Tamer Cavusgil d,* University of Texas at Dallas, United States University of Nevada, Reno, United States c Florida State University, United States d The John W. Byington Endowed Chair in Global Marketing, Department of Marketing and Supply Chain Management, The Eli Broad Graduate School of Management, Michigan State University, 370 North Business Complex, East Lansing, MI 48824, United States b a Received 31 January 2005; received in revised form 5 May 2005; accepted 15 May 2005 Available online 11 July 2005 Abstract Organizations increasingly rely on information technology (IT) to improve the supply chain process. Yet, past evidence suggests that the investment in IT per se does not guarantee enhanced organizational performance. We will write a custom essay sample on Industrial Marketing Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now Drawing from the resource-based view, this study proposes that IT-enabled supply chain capabilities are firm-specific, and hard-to-copy across organizations. These capabilities can serve as a catalyst in transforming IT-related resources into higher value for a firm. Based on data collected from surveying supply chain and logistics managers in various industries, the present study sheds light on these issues. The findings provide a new perspective in evaluating IT investment in the supply chain process. D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Information technology; Supply chain capabilities; Resource-based view 1. Introduction The use of information technology (IT) in managing the supply chain process has drawn increasing attention in the corporate world. Indeed, a recent study conducted by Forrester Research indicates that U. S. anufacturers are increasingly dependent on the benefits brought about by IT to: improve supply chain agility, reduce cycle time, achieve higher efficiency, and deliver products to customers in a timely manner (Radjou, 2003). However, IT investment in the supply chain process does not guarantee a stronger organizational performance. The debate on the ‘‘IT-productivity’’ paradox and o ther anecdotal evidence suggests that the impact of IT on firm performance remains unclear (e. g. , * Corresponding author. Tel. : +1 517 432 4320; fax: +1 517 432 4322. E-mail addresses: fangwu@msu. edu (F. Wu), yeniyurt@msu. edu (S. Yeniyurt), dkim@garnet. acns. fsu. edu (D. Kim), cavusgil@msu. edu (S. T. Cavusgil). 0019-8501/$ – see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. indmarman. 2005. 05. 003 Brynjolfsson, 1993; Lucas Spitler, 1999). In fact, the adoption of a particular technology is easily duplicated by other firms, and it often does not provide a sustained competitive advantage for the adopting firms (e. g. , Powell Dent-Micallef, 1997). Not surprisingly, determining how IT as a resource can create a sustained competitive advantage for a firm remains to be an unresolved issue (Barney, Wright, Ketchen, 2001). The primary objective of this paper is to provide some new perspectives in explaining how IT can create a sustained competitive advantage for the firm. In particular, drawing from the resource-based view and supply chain management literature, we propose that IT-enabled supply chain capabilities can serve as a catalyst in transforming ITrelated resources into higher value for a firm. The value of IT can be enhanced when it is embedded throughout the supply chain process (Powell Dent-Micallef, 1997). The implementation of IT in the supply chain can enable a firm to develop and accumulate knowledge stores about its 94 F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 customers, suppliers, and market demands, which in turn influences firm performance (Tippins Sohi, 2003). Second, we explore two IT-related resources-IT advancement and IT alignment-and their roles in creating higher value for the firm. Past literature tends to examine IT as a stand-alone resource without considering the interrelationship between IT, a firm’s strategic emphasis, and the overall business processes (Clemons Row, 1991; Tippins Sohi, 2003). In this study, IT advancement measures the extent to which a firm applies the state-of-the-art technology to augment its supply chain capabilities while IT alignment reflects a firm’s strategic emphasis in coordinating and integrating its own IT with that of its supply chain partners. By investigating these two specific IT-related resources that are organizationally embedded, we avoid the trap of treating IT as a stand-alone resource, leading to a sounder evaluation of the potential of IT in influencing firm performance. Third, we develop a new conceptualization of supply chain capabilities as a higher-order construct, consisting of four dimensions: information exchange, coordination, activity integration and supply chain responsiveness. Past literature has discussed one or a few specific aspects of the above capabilities individually (e. g. , Frohlich, 2002; Leek, Turnbull, Naude, 2003; Sahin Robinson, 2002; Stump Sriram, 1997). No previous study provides a conceptualization of supply chain capabilities as a higherorder construct that encompasses all of the above dimensions. Our measurement provides a composite index in measuring supply chain capabilities across organizations. Since IT in the supply chain process has various forms, we limit the context of this study to supply chain communication system (SCCS)—a subset of supply chain management system (SCMS). An SCCS is defined here as an information system shared by channel partners in order to facilitate electronic transactions, quality and cost calibration, and collaborative forecasting and planning (Bowersox, Closs, Stank, 1999). A typical SCCS incorporates electronic interface systems such as electronic data interchange (EDI) and the Internet, to link the various parts of supply chain management system together including enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, advanced planning, transportation management, and warehouse management systems (Angeles Nath, 2003; Bowersox, Closs, Cooper, 2002; Edwards Peters, 2001; Sanders Premus, 2002; Shah, Goldstein, Ward, 2002; Subramani, 2004). Radio frequency exchange and satellite technology have emerged recently as key elements in SCCS to meet the increasing demand for information in the supply chain process (Bowersox et al. , 2002). By limiting the scope to SCCS, we are able to control the respondents’ evaluations to a specific type of supply chain system. The rest of this article is organized as follows. We begin with a brief review of the resource-based view related to IT and supply chain management. Then, a four-dimensional conceptualization of supply chain capabilities is proposed and discussed. You read "Industrial Marketing Management" in category "Papers" Next, a framework that links the IT-related resources to supply chain capabilities and the performance outcomes is presented. This is followed by a discussion of the survey methodology, empirical findings, managerial implications, and limitations. 2. Resource-based view and supply chain capabilities According to the resource-based view, sources of competitive advantage begin with the notion that firm resources may be heterogeneous and immobile (Barney, 1991). Differences in market performance are fundamentally due to the distinctive resources and capabilities that are valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable (e. . , Barney, 1991; Wernerfelt, 1984). In addition, a firm’s competitive advantage can be sustained when it implements a strategy that is not easily duplicated by its competitors (Barney, 1991). How to leverage resources in creating and sustaining competitive advantage for a firm has become the central focus for marketing scholars that link various types of marke t-based assets (Srivastava, Shervani, Fahey, 1998; Srivastava, Shervani, Fahey, 1999) and capabilities (e. g. , Day, 1994) with the ultimate financial performance of a firm (e. g. , Hunt Morgan, 1995; Srivastava, Fahey, Christensen, 2001). IT, as part of a firm’s resource portfolio, may not meet the resource-based view criteria when acting alone. Due to the relatively low barriers to imitation and acquisition by other firms, IT-based advantage tends to diminish fairly quickly (Clemons Row, 1991). As a result, how IT as a resource can provide a sustained competitive advantage for a firm has become one of the key research topics in recent years. For example, Powell and Dent-Micallef (1997) have shown that the value of IT can be augmented only when it is embedded in an organization through resource complementarity and co-specialization. In the present study, we examine the implementation of IT in the supply chain communication system (SCCS). We propose that through embedding IT in a firm’s supply chain process, IT can facilitate the development of higher-order organizational capabilities, namely supply chain capabilities, which are firm specific and hard to duplicate across organizations. The information advantage achieved through the adoption of sophisticated technologies and the synergistic benefits achieved through an integrated system provide the sources of sustained competitive advantage for a firm (Bharadwaj, 2000). . 1. Supply chain capabilities In this study, we focus on examining one unique set of organizational capabilities –supply chain capabilities, and their mediating role between IT-related resource and firm performance. Supply chain capabilities refer to the ability of an organization to identify, utilize, and assimilate both F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 à ¢â‚¬â€œ 504 495 internal and external resources/information to facilitate the entire supply chain activities (Amit Schoemaker, 1993; Bharadwaj, 2000; Collis, 1994). We conceptualize supply chain capabilities as a second-order construct that encompasses four dimensions: information exchange, coordination, interfirm activity integration, and supply chain responsiveness. These four dimensions are chosen because they represent all the important activities involved in the supply chain process. Each of the four dimensions reflects an ability to perform cross-functional as well as interorganizational activities which are required in supply chain management. In addition, they highlight the dynamic nature of the supply chain capabilities that enable a firm to learn and respond to environmental changes (Amit Schoemaker, 1993; Teece, Pisano, Shuen, 1997). Our field interviews with supply chain and logistic managers also confirmed this conceptualization. We believe that supply chain capabilities represent a higher level (if not the highest) in the hierarchy of organizational capabilities (Grant, 1996), where they require a wide range of knowledge integration as indicated above. This type of higher-order capability is harder to achieve and thus enjoys a higher level of protection against competitive imitation (Collis, 1994; Grant, 1996). It possesses the virtues of a valuable source of sustained competitive advantage (Barney, 1991). 2. 2. Information exchange Information exchange refers to the ability of a firm to share knowledge with its supply chain partners in an effective and efficient manner. The information shared in an SCCS encompasses information between direct channel partners as well as throughout the entire supply chain network (Clemons Row, 1993). In order for channel partners to use it effectively and efficiently, information has to be exchanged when needed. It needs to come from a credible source and in an adequate format (Mohr Sohi, 1995). An effective information exchange has been identified as one of the most fundamental abilities in the supply chain process (Shore Venkatachalam, 2003). 2. 3. Coordination Interfirm coordination refers to the ability of a firm to coordinate transaction-related activities with supply chain partners (Clemons Row, 1993; Malone, Yates, Benjamin, 1987; Shin, 1999). Coordination with supply chain partners includes the coordination of materials, money, manpower and capital equipment from order-taking to order follow-up (Sahin Robinson, 2002). Improving coordination between supply chain partners can help reduce transaction costs and improve operational efficiency between supply chain partners, and thus it is one of the key indicators in evaluating a firm’s supply chain capabilities (Sahin Robinson, 2002; Shin, 1999). 2. 4. Activity integration Firms are integrating their activities both internally and across channel partners (Clark Stoddard, 1996). In the present inquiry, we focus on integration across channel partners. We view interfirm channel integration as a twodimensional process: interfirm technology integration and activity integration. Technology integration is reflected in the level of technology alignment with channel partners, while activity integration is conceptualized as the extent to which a firm coordinates its strategic channel activities such as planning and forecasting with its supply chain partners (Bowersox et al. , 1999). The existing literature fails to explicitly differentiate them as two separate dimensions. We believe the distinction is important because a higher degree of activity integration is a desired outcome of technology integration with channel partners. In other words, technology integration with channel partners does not guarantee that the supply chain activities are automatically integrated after the deployment of such technology. Firms need to fundamentally shift their ways of doing business with channel partners from discrete transactions to continuous and consistent transactions in order to achieve activity integration with their partners (Clark Stoddard, 1996). Therefore, the level of activity integration, rather than echnology integration, is a good indicator of a firm’s supply chain capabilities. 2. 5. Supply chain responsiveness Supply chain responsiveness is defined as the extent to which channel members respond cooperatively to environmental changes. It elicits the dynamic nature of a firm’s supply chain capabilities, which allows a firm to develop and renew firm-specific competences and to better respond to shifts in the environment (Collis, 1994; Teece et al. , 1997). Today’s complicated marketplace requires reliable, efficient, and collaborative response from the entire supply chain (Rogers, Daugherty, Stank, 1993). Being able to take actions and to react subsequently to information gathered is the ultimate form of learning (Sinkula, Baker, Noordewier, 1997). Thus, we consider supply chain responsiveness as one of the key dimensions of a firm’s supply chain capabilities. 3. Hypothesis development 3. 1. IT Advancement IT advancement for SCCS is defined as the extent to which a firm adopts the most sophisticated technology. It measures the degree of proactive adoption and implementation of advanced IT to find customer solutions ahead of competitors. 496 F. Wu et al. Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 Firms increasingly invest more resources in their SCCS and IT departments in an effort to develop the internal skills necessary to make full use of advanced technologies (Booth Philip, 1998). However, a higher level of IT investment does not necessarily imply better use of firm resources. Most often, huge expenditures in information and communication technology do not necessarily result in muchanticipated benefits for a firm (e. g. , Barney et al. , 2001; Brynjolfsson, 1993; Taylor, 2003). Yet, it is likely that firms successfully enhance efficiency in their business activities and processes by adopting advanced IT (Mukhopadhyay, Rajiv, Srinivasan, 1997; Stank, Crum, Arango, 1999). We argue that in order for IT to become a firm-specific resource and, thus, increase its appropriability, it has to be embedded within an organizational process or adopted ahead of competitors (e. g. , Barney, 1991; Powell DentMicallef, 1997; Tippins Sohi, 2003). Adopting advanced IT ahead of competitors increases the possibility that the owning firms receive some differential benefits. When accumulated, a high level of IT advancement is likely to offer additional benefits that would not be available to late adopters. That is, IT advancement is a reflection of a firm’s strategic emphasis in adopting the most advanced technology in order to stay ahead of competitors. In such a situation, IT becomes unique and imperfectly mobile across firms, and it can provide the adopting firms with exclusive benefits through higher efficiency than those of its rivals for at least a certain time period (e. g. Collis, 1994; Philip Booth, 2001). The advancement of IT in SCCS can help build stronger supply chain capabilities in several ways. First, the equipment of advanced SCCS has the potential to enhance the speed, quality and quantity of information transferred (Booth Philip, 1998; Clemons Row, 1993; Malone et al. , 1987). By accelerating the speed of information acquisition and information exchange, IT can ensure the availability and timeliness of relevant and important information to each party involved (Tippins Sohi, 2003). Second, the deployment of an advanced information technology in the supply chain system can achieve better coordination and reduce transaction costs between partners (Clemons Row, 1993). For example, Dell’s supply chain system is known for its ability to coordinate different parties efficiently in the just-in-time assembly of customized computer orders. This enables Dell to enjoy a long-term cost advantage than that of its competitors (Taylor, 2004). Third, an advanced SCCS can also improve interfirm integration between channel partners (Bowersox et al. , 1999). Frohlich (2002) notes that a web-based technology now permits the upstream as well as downstream supply chain integration in areas such as inventory planning, demand forecasting, and order scheduling. An integrated flow of information between customers and suppliers can ease the task of balancing the supply and demand across the entire supply chain network. Fourth, an efficient SCCS gives partners greater ability to respond to market changes and customer requests in a timely manner along with efficient information exchange and coordination activities (Rogers et al. , 1993; Stank et al. , 1999). For example, Clemons and Row (1993, p. 3) claim that ‘‘just-in-time inventory techniques with key suppliers or customers are reducing channel inventories and improving system responsiveness. ’’ Based upon the above discussion, we posit: H1. IT advancement affects supply chain capabilities positively. 3. 2. IT Alignment IT alignment in this study is defined as the exte nt to which a firm’s IT is compatible with that of its channel partners. IT alignment reflects the degree of embeddedness of IT across the supply chain, and it requires channel partners to coordinate and align their business processes with each other in order to achieve efficiency (Powell, 1992). The advancement and alignment of information technology are equally important for the functional adequacy of SCCS (Hausman Stock, 2003). Yet, IT alignment between partners is difficult to achieve (Clemons Row, 1993), and it requires resource commitment and coordination across the channel relationship. In fact, one of the biggest challenges in supply chain management is the integration between trading partners (Frohlich, 2002; Taylor, 2003). Since many supply chain software packages are offered by a variety of vendors and are built using a wide range of technologies (Philip Booth, 2001), failure to achieve system integration across the supply chain has become one of major growing pains in supply chain management (Taylor, 2003). The investment in advanced IT helps achieve higher system compatibility and integration between channel partners (Philip Booth, 2001). For example, the transition of SCCS from proprietary EDI to Internet-based EDI is widely observed across industry for companies seeking better system compatibility (Bowersox et al. 1999). The newly introduced XML technology allows even more powerful interaction and integration between channel partners (Xml. org, 2002). In addition, the need of IT alignment calls for supply chain partners to share the costs and responsibilities in the adoption of a new technology (Bowersox et al. , 1999; Taylor, 2003). For those partners that have yet to adopt a new system, the pr essures from the entire supply chain network and the potential synergistic benefits through an integrated system can serve as an impetus for the adoption of advanced technologies to enhance IT alignment. Therefore, we believe a higher level of IT advancement helps build higher IT alignment across the supply chain. H2. IT advancement affects interfirm IT alignment positively. The achievement of IT alignment requires an organization to develop a higher order of integrative capability that is tacit and complex in nature (Powell, 1992). In the process of F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 497 aligning different business processes in the supply chain network, firms are able to develop a higher level of supply chain capability that is otherwise hard to achieve when acting alone. This kind of capability requires the integration of resources across the supply chain process, and IT alignment provides the basis for such integration. Through an integrated supply chain system, a firm is able to combine complementary resources into a synergic bundle that will generate higher rents for all partners (Amit Schoemaker, 1993; Day, 1994). In today’s information-intensive environment, improvement in IT alignment can smooth out the flow of active information and resource sharing within and across firms (Kearns Lederer, 2003). It allows supply chain partners an opportunity to jointly codify valuable market knowledge into explicit strategies. It also helps the firm coordinate strategic planning process, which is critical in organizing and allocating resources to achieve organizational effectiveness (Segars, Grover, Teng, 1998). In addition, the complex process of IT alignment is likely to improve supply chain responsiveness and collaboration with partners to address the changing market needs (Malone et al. , 1987; Philip Booth, 2001). H3. IT alignment affects supply chain capabilities positively. . 3. Impact of supply chain capabilities on firm performance In the present study, we propose that supply chain capabilities serve as a mediating role between IT-related resource and firm performance (Collis, 1994). We examine two performance variables-marketing performance and financial performance. Following Venkatraman and Ramanujam (1986), our definition of marketing performance includes sales growth, market share, product development, and market development. Financial performance is defined in terms of profitability, ROI, and cash flow from operations. In the context of this study, enhancing SCCS can impact firm performance in several ways. First, information flows facilitated by the communication system can potentially increase the sales volume by reaching customers directly and promptly whenever a new product is introduced, and by tapping into markets that were inaccessible on account of distribution or other infrastructure constraints (Wu, Mahajan, Balasubramanian, 2003). Second, the synergistic benefits achieved through an integrated system allow a firm to respond better to customer problems and requests (Rogers et al. 1993). For example, through its interface with customer relationship management system, an SCCS allows a firm to: respond to customer inquiries, track customer orders, and provide better after-sale service (Bowersox et al. , 1999). Supply chain capabilities can also potentially improve a firm’s financial performance through a cost advantage over competitors. Information sharing in the supply chain may red uce demand uncertainty, and the cost of inventories in the process of matching supply with demand in the supply hain network (Frohlich, 2002). It can also help a firm produce and deliver products or services to customers at lower cost and higher speed through the improvement in coordination between supply chain partners (Lin, Huang, Lin, 2002). In addition, a seamless supply chain system simplifies the organizational process and reduces lead times with suppliers (Christopher Ryals, 1999). It allows a firm the ability to adjust its strategies and implement them throughout the supply chain ahead of competitors when opportunities arise. This can ultimately enhance shareholder value due to flexible business processes (Srivastava et al. , 1999). Therefore, we believe the enhancement of supply chain capabilities through IT can have a direct impact on a firm’s market performance as well as financial performance. H4. Supply chain capabilities of a firm affect its market performance positively. H5. Supply chain capabilities of a firm affect its financial performance positively. 3. 4. Control variable Firm size can have a great impact on firm performance. Larger firms could, ceteris paribus, derive greater synergy effects from human and financial resources that lead to better performance. Therefore, size of the strategic business unit (SBU), measured by the total number of employees in the SBU and sales volume of past year, is included as a control variable in this study when we test the main effect of supply chain capabilities on firm performance. This enables us to identify the nature of relationship between supply chain capabilities and firm performance more effectively. 4. Research methods 4. 1. The sampling frame and data collection This study examines supply chain partnerships at the strategic business unit (SBU) level, incorporating both buyer and supplier relationships. From our field interviews, appropriate respondents were determined to be supply chain managers, logistics managers, or procurement/purchasing managers who are responsible for a firm’s supply chain activities. After considering various trade associations, we sought the cooperation from the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP), formerly known as the Council of Logistics Management (CLM), which provided us with the database of member companies. We excluded consultants, freight forwarders, and third-party logistics companies, which resulted in a pool of 1949 managers. We employed two established criteria to select informants in this study (e. g. , Li Calantone, 1998). First, following Seidler (1974, p. 817), was the informant in a 498 Table 1 Results of second order CFA Item F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 Std. loading . 853 . 831 . 703 . 775 . 834 t value – 12. 699 9. 920 11. 406 12. 778 Composite reliability . 90 IT advancement My BU uses the most advanced IT for SCCS Our IT for SCCS is always state-of-art technology Relative to our competitors, our SCCS are more advanced My BU is always first to use new IT for SCCS in our industry My BU is regarded as an IT leader in our industry for SCCS IT alignment My BU’s IT for SCCS is well aligned with our partner My BU invests in IT to align our technology with our partner Our partner invests in IT to align their technology with us Both my BU and our partner always work together for the best IT alignment IT advances for SCCS, between my BU and our partner, are well aligned for best supply chain performance Size (as reported by nformant) Ln (Sales) Ln (Employees) Supply chain capabilities -Information Exchange My BU exchanges more information with our partner than our competitors do with their partners Information flows more freely between my BU and our partner than between our competitors and their partners My BU benefits more from information exchange with our partner than do our competitors from their partners Our information exchange with our partner is superior to the information exchanged by our competitors with their partners -Coordination My BU is more efficient in coordination activities with our partner than are our competitors with theirs My BU conducts transaction follow-up activities more efficiently with our partner than do our competitors with theirs My BU spends less time coordinating transactions with our partner than our competitors with theirs My BU has reduced coordinating costs more than our competitors My BU can conduct the coordination activities at less cost than our competitors -Activity Integration My BU develops strategic plans in collaboration with our partner My BU collaborates actively in forecasting and planning with our partner My BU projects and plans future demand collaboratively with our partner Collaboration in demand forecasting and planning with our partner is something we always do in my BU My BU always forecasts and plans activities collaboratively with our partner -Responsiveness Compared to our competitors, our supply chain responds more quickly and effectively to changing customer and supplier needs Compared to our competitors, our supply chain responds more quickly and effectively to changing competitor strategies Compared to our competitors, our supply chain develops and markets new products more quickly and effectively In most markets, our supply chain is competing effectively The relationship with our partner has increased our supply chain responsiveness to market changes through collaboration Financial performance My BU performs much better than competitors in profitability My BU performs much better than competitors in ROI My BU performs much better than competitors in cash flow from operations .871 . 837 . 757 . 874 . 917 – 13. 827 11. 645 15. 004 16. 517 .93 .946 . 640 – 2. 498 .78 .851 . 884 . 921 . 902 – 14. 18 15. 868 15. 273 .94 .844 . 881 . 728 . 816 . 843 – 14. 033 10. 460 12. 402 13. 077 .91 .697 . 735 . 840 . 940 . 919 . 875 . 874 . 708 . 765 . 666 – 8. 765 9. 956 11. 017 10. 812 – 14. 366 10. 262 11. 552 9. 418 .92 .89 .913 . 930 . 830 – 18. 493 14. 605 .92 F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 Table 1 (continued ) Item Marketing performance My BU performs much My BU performs much My BU performs much My BU performs much better better better better than than than than competitors competitors competitors competitors in in in in sales growth market share market development product development Std. loading . 822 . 811 . 87 . 782 t value – 11. 640 13. 180 11. 068 499 Composite reliability . 90 Second order supply chain capabilities factor Information exchange Coordination Activity integration Responsiveness Model fit statistics v 2 statistic (df) Bentler – Bonett nonnormed fit index (NNFI) Bentler – Bonet normed fit ind ex (NFI) Comparative fit index (CFI) Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) .780 . 856 . 618 . 821 – 8. 162 5. 905 8. 105 .86 1085. 957 (646) . 968 . 931 . 971 . 061 ‘‘ – ’’ indicates a fixed scaling parameter. All items except for size were measured using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. osition to generalize ‘‘about patterns of (relevant) behavior, after summarizing either observed or expected organizational relations? ’’ Since all of our respondents are corporate managers who handle supply chain activities (i. e. , supply chain management and logistics), it is reasonable to expect that the respondents can offer an adequate overview of the supply chain activities. Second, was the informant knowledgeable about the content of the inquiry? Following Kumar, Stern, and Anderson (1993), we asked informants to provide a self-assessment of their expertise on research topics. On a seven-point scale with ‘‘7 = best qualified,’’ the mean response was 5. 3, suggesting adequate qualification for this study. During data collection, a preliminary request with an URL link to the web-survey was emailed to these managers, requesting their participation. There were 223 undeliverable emails, and another five managers indicated no interest in participation. Ten days later, a reminder was sent out. From the two requests, 264 responses were received within the three-week time frame, yielding an effective response rate of 15. 3% (264 / 1726). The final usable sample contained 184 responses (usable response rate of 10. 7%), with the following industry-wise distribution: consumer products (17. 9%), industrial machinery (15. %), computer and communication (13. 0%), automotive (9. 2%), electronic equipment (9. 2%), medical equipment (6. 5%), chemical (4. 9%), others (21. 2%), and not reported (2. 3%). To assess non-response bias, we compar ed early and late respondents (Armstrong Overton, 1977). The first 75% (n = 138) of the responses were classified as ‘‘early respondents’’. The last 25% of them were considered as ‘‘late respondents’’ and were deemed representative of firms that did not respond to the survey (Li Calantone, 1998; Wu et al. , 2003). The results of t-tests reveal that there is no significant difference on major constructs between the two groups. In addition, we compared the responses of our final sample with the available responses from 30 managers who opted to drop out before completing the online survey. T-test results revealed no significant difference on sample characteristics and on one available key construct, IT advancement (t = 0. 092). Therefore, it appears that non-response bias does not pose a significant problem for this study. The Harman one-factor test (Podsakoff Organ, 1986) was utilized to test for common method bias. A principal component analysis of all the items included in the study was performed. Since no dominant factor emerged (the first factor explains only 11. 3 % of the total variance), we conclude that there is no evidence suggesting the presence of common method bias in the study. 4. 2. Measurement, reliability and validity We followed the procedures suggested by Churchill (1979) in scale development. First, the domain of each construct was clearly defined in terms of what would be included or excluded. Second, the literature was searched to locate any relevant scales. Measures were adopted or adapted from the existing literature where appropriate. If none were available or appropriate, new measures were developed. All items except for firm size were measured using a seven-point Likert scale with 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree. The scales for IT advancement were adapted from the measurement of technological orientation in Gatignon and Xuereb (1997). We modified the scales to reflect IT advancement within an organization. Activity 500 F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 integration scales were modified from Bowersox et al. (1999) where the degree of interfirm collaboration was measured. Scales for IT alignment, information exchange, and partner coordination were developed especially for this study. Supply chain responsiveness was adapted from McGinnis and Kohn (1993), with adjustments from the firm to the supply chain level. For market performance, scales were adapted from Venkatraman and Ramanujam (1986) including sales growth, market share, market development, and product development. Financial performance was measured in terms of profitability, ROI, and cash flow from operations. Finally, the company size was measured in terms of sales and number of employees of each SBU as reported by the informant. The firm size variable was transformed by taking the natural log to alleviate univariate non-normalities and account for nonlinear effects (Wooldridge, 2000). 4. 3. Reliability and validity A second-order confirmatory factor analysis was carried out (Bentler, 1989) to investigate the convergent and discriminant validity of each construct. The measurement model including all constructs was fitted by the elliptical reweighted least squares (ERLS) procedure of the EQS program (Bentler, 1989). The results of the analysis are shown in Table 1. The model provides an excellent model fit (v 2 = 1085. 96 with 646 df, CFI = 0. 971, NNFI = 0. 968, NFI = 0. 931, RMSEA= 0. 061) given the complex nature of the second-order confirmatory factor analysis (Bentler, 1989). All items loaded on their respective constructs and were statistically significant. Further, the composite reliability for all constructs was above the 0. 7 level suggested by Nunnally (1978), indicating adequate reliability. Table 1 describes the measures and the reliability of each construct. Convergent validity was established by examining significant factor loadings on each construct. Following Anderson (1987), convergent validity is suggested when items load significantly on their designated latent variables. The standardized CFA loadings in Table 1 present evidence of convergent validity. The loadings of the four first-order factors on the supply chain capabilities are positive and statistically significant, indicating convergent validity at the second order factor level. We assessed the discriminant Table 2 Descriptive statistics Mean Standard deviation validity of each construct using the procedure recommended by Bagozzi, Yi, and Phillips (1991). This entails analyzing all possible pairs of constructs in a series of two-factor confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models using EQS (Bentler, 1989). Each model was run twice — once constraining the correlation between constructs to unity and another freeing the parameter. A chi-square (v 2) difference test was then performed on the nested models to assess if the v 2 values were significantly lower for the unconstrained models. The critical value (Dv 2(1) 3. 84) was exceeded in all pairs. The results indicate that the chisquare values are significantly lower for the unconstrained models at the one percent level, which suggests that the constructs exhibit discriminant validity. Supply chain capabilities were hypothesized to have a second-order structure consisting of four dimensions: information exchange, coordination, activity integration and supply chain responsiveness. In order to further assess the validity of supply chain capabilities as a second-order construct, we conducted additional analysis by comparing the model fit of a second-order model by pulling the four constructs together with another model where the four constructs were treated as first-order constructs only. The second-order model consisting of the four constructs indicated an adequate model fit for the proposed structure (v 2 = 348. 147 with 148 df, CFI = 0. 962, NNFI = 0. 956, NFI = 0. 936, RMSEA= 0. 086). Given the parsimonious nature of the second-order factor, and the insignificant difference in fit indices between the two measurement models, the second-order factor structure for supply chain capabilities is preferred (Hull, Tedlie, Lehn, 1991). 5. Results The effects of IT advancement and IT alignment on supply chain capabilities and the performance outcomes were assessed using a full model specification. The correlations between the factors included in the full model and their standard deviations based on the second order CFA output are presented in Table 2. Standardized path coefficients and the fit statistics are shown in Fig. 1. The overall fit statistics indicate an excellent model fit for the full model (v 2 = 1088. 75 with 752 df, CFI = 0. 971, NNFI = 0. 969, NFI = 0. 931, RMSEA= 0. 061). Regarding the hypothesized rela- Correlations 1 2 1. 000 . 201 . 402 . 396 . 564 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 IT advancement IT alignment Firm size Financial performance Marketing performance Supply chain capabilities 3. 560 3. 699 6. 481 4. 776 4. 859 4. 287 1. 478 1. 320 2. 141 1. 241 1. 067 . 910 1. 000 . 687 . 199 . 433 . 391 . 540 1. 000 . 197 . 134 . 097 1. 000 . 769 . 532 1. 000 . 559 Mean values are based on average factor scores; correlations and standard deviations are from the second-order CFA output. F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 501 IT Alignment .365** Supply Chain Capabilities .566** Marketing Performance .537** . 689** . 306* .067 IT Advancement Firm Size .130 Financial Performance Chi-square: 1088. 75 (652 df; p . 01), NNFI: . 969, NFI: . 931, CFI: . 971, RMSEA: . 61 * p . 05; **p . 01 Fig. 1. Full model estimates — Standardized parameters. v 2: 1088. 75 (652 df; p . 01), NNFI: . 969, NFI: . 931, CFI: . 971, RMSEA: . 061 * p . 05; **p . 01. tionship, IT advancement has a significant positive effect on both IT alignment (t = 8. 570, p . 01) and supply chain capabilities (t = 2. 563, p . 05). Thus, H1 and H2 are supported. The results also indicate that IT alignment has a positive and significant effect on supply chain capabilities (t = 3. 019, p . 01). Therefore, H3 is supported. Further, the effects of supply chain capabilities on marketing performance (t = 4. 970, p . 1) and on financial performance (t = 4. 989, p . 01) are positive and significant. Hence, the results support both H4 and H5. Finally, firm size, as the control variable, reveals no significant effect on performance variables. The analysis of the total effects indicates that the total effects of IT advancement on market performance (t = 4. 845, p . 01) and financial performance (t = 4. 885, p . 01) are positive and significant. Similarly, the total effects of IT alignment on marketing performance (t = 2. 972, p . 01) and financial performance (t = 2. 981, p . 01) are positive and significant, as mediated by supply chain cap abilities. Further, to assess the mediation effect of supply chain capabilities on the relationships between the ITrelated antecedents and firm performance, two alternative models were estimated (Venkatraman, 1989). First, the construct of supply chain capabilities was removed and only the direct effects of IT advancement and IT alignment on performance variables were estimated. In this model, the direct effects of IT variables on performance variables were positive and significant at the . 01 level. Second, the direct effects of IT advancement and IT alignment on the performance variables were added to the original model, including the indirect effects, as mediated by supply chain capabilities. In this specification, none of the direct effects of the IT variables on performance variables was significant at the . 10 level. Hence, we conclude that the effects of IT alignment and IT advancement on firm performance are fully mediated by supply chain capabilities (Venkatraman, 1989). 6. Discussion and implications 6. 1. The mediating role of supply chain capabilities In this research we explored the role of supply chain capabilities as a key mediator between IT investment and firm performance. Results indicate that supply chain capabilities are able to transform IT-related resource into higher value for a firm. Through embedding IT into a firm’s supply chain system, the firm is able to enhance channelspecific assets through effective information exchange and better coordination with supply chain partners. A higher level of supply hain capabilities bestows the firm an information advantage over competitors through gaining access to and even integrating knowledge from multiple sources that are not available when acting alone. The improvement in supply chain capabilities through IT allows the firm to l earn and respond to market changes better and quicker than competitors. In addition, a firm possessing these capabilities can shield itself from immediate competitive imitation since such capabilities are developed over time and are deeply embedded in organizational routines. This provides the basis of sustained competitive advantage (e. g. , Barney, 1991; Bharadwaj, 2000). The mediation effect of supply chain capabilities also implies that incorporating proper mediators may help better explain the impact of IT on firm performance. The present study provides some explanations regarding the inconsistent effects of IT on firm productivity (Brynjolfsson, 1993). The findings suggest that examining the impact of IT in a specific setting, such as a firm’s supply chain system, can help better gauge the effect of IT on firm performance (Barney et al. , 2001). The results also provide some implications for managing the supply chain system. In particular, managers need to recognize the role of supply chain capabilities in realizing the value of IT resources. As the resource-based view argues, IT resources offer benefits when they are embedded in specific organizational processes (Barney, 1991). The study examines the impact of IT resources on firm performance in the context of SCCS. Findings suggest that a proper deployment of IT resources in SCCS can help realize the benefits of IT through building higher supply chain capabilities in such areas as information exchange, coordination, activity integration, and supply chain responsiveness. The study also provides support for conceptualizing supply chain capability as a higher order construct. Managers need to realize that the different dimensions of supply chain capabilities are interrelated. The investment in the supply chain system needs to be coordinated throughout the channel partners in order to realize the full potential of IT investment in the supply chain system. Moreover, a firm’s supply chain capabilities are likely to contribute more 502 F. Wu et al. / Industrial Marketing Management 35 (2006) 493 – 504 to firm performance when stemming from well-balanced supply chain activities rather than from fragmented and imbalanced activities. 6. 2. IT-related resources and supply chain capabilities Despite the crucial role of supply chain capabilities in realizing the value of IT on firm performance, achieving such capabilities is not an easy task. Supply chain capabilities, as higher-order organizational capabilities, represent a firm’s abilities to effectively combine resources using informationbased organizational processes to serve customers (e. g. , Amit Schoemaker, 1993). A higher level of knowledge integration from multiple sources and multiple partners throughout the supply chain is required to perform the tasks effectively and efficiently (e. g. , Grant, 1996). The findings suggest that IT advancement and IT alignment are able to facilitate the development of supply chain capabilities. By deploying the newest technology for SCCS, especially before it is diffused widely, firms are expected to achieve higher efficiency than their competitors in channel activities, both within the firm and with partners (Boone Ganeshan, 2001; Philip Booth, 2001; Porter, 2001). The adoption of an advanced IT for SCCS can improve information sharing and coordination between channel partners (Sahin Robinson, 2002). Due to the interconnectedness enabled by information technology, the once-isolated decision making process from upstream suppliers to the downstream customers is becoming more intertwined (Bowersox et al. , 1999). In fact, Vakharia (2002, p. 497) indicates that the purpose of information sharing is to ‘‘facilitate integrated and/or coordinated decision making in supply chain. ’’ In addition, sharing information across the supply chain network can help firms forecast market demands better, reduce inventory costs, and be more responsive to customer orders (Lin et al. , 2002). Due to high costs, supply disruption, and the potential loss of confidential information, supply chain partners often resist the changes in the process of e-integration across the supply chain (Frohlich, 2002). The technology incompatibility is often cited as one of the major causes of supply chain disruption (Taylor, 2003). The findings suggest that IT alignment with channel partners is equally important, if not more, in enhancing a firm’s competitive advantage through supply chain communication systems. Previous research has examined the role of strategic alignment between IT and overall business strategy of a firm (Kearns Lederer, 2003). The current study broadens the scope of IT alignment to the entire supply chain. It provides some useful guidelines for managing the supply chain. Specifically, we find that channel partners not only have to adopt an adequate technology in the process of supply chain management but also are required to strive for technology compatibility across the supply chain (Hausman Stock, 2003). That is, a simultaneous investment in IT by all partners is required to achieve the full potential of their IT commitment. However, due to the multiple technology platforms often encountered in the supply chain system and the high level of financial commitment required from all channel partners, IT alignment provides both opportunities and challenges for effective supply chain management (Hausman Stock, 2003). The study also suggests that a successful deployment of IT involves not only advanced, state-of-the-art IT infrastructure but also the identification of the context in which IT will be utilized. That is, managers need to identify the appropriate context related to IT resource deployment and reconfigure the organizational processes in a way that can realize the full potential of IT (Swanson, 1994). In the supply chain context, managers need to realize that IT alignment is an important element of successful IT deployment. Only when managers are able to coordinate IT investments in the supply chain systems across channel partners efficiently and effectively, will the returns from IT be optimized. 7. Limitations and future research Several limitations of this study can be addressed in future research. First, this study relied on cross-sectional data. Although surveying corporate managers become increasingly challenging and costly, collecting data over time from the participating managers can offer richer implications. Future research may consider validating the findings of this study using a time-series data. Second, the study framework was tested primarily with a single informant from each organization. A dataset with multiple informants from each organization can enhance the validity of the findings. Third, this study used perceived measures of market and financial performance by managers. Future work can attempt to blend in objective data in an effort to validate the findings. Fourth, we included firm size as a control variable in this study which revealed no significant effect on firm performance. Other variables such as a firm’s IT experience or industry experience could shed light on the relationship between supply chain capabilities and firm performance. Finally, this study explored only two specific types of IT resources — IT advancement and IT alignment. Other types of IT resources could influence a firm’s supply chain capabilities as well. 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Unemployment in New Jersey

Introduction New Jersey is a state in America that boarders New York and Philadelphia. Economic situation of New Jersey is essential to world’s economy. Labor force is integral to economic situation of New Jersey. In this regard, employment and levels of unemployment should be monitored so as to ensure that economy is stable.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Unemployment in New Jersey specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The essay will focus on outlining trends of labor force in New Jersey over the last one year. Focus will be on changes recorded from October 2012 to October 2013, in relation to labor force. Factors that affect participation rate in labor will be highlighted. Age and ethnicity will be considered in process of comprehending trends of labor force in New Jersey. A comprehensive summary of findings will be made, so as to provide a valid conclusion on the situation of labor force in New Jersey. Geog raphically, New Jersey is the fourth smallest but eleventh state in terms of population size. Economically, it is third richest state in America. According to population estimates by United States Census Bureau in 2012, New Jersey had 8,864,590 residents. Population of the state had increased by 0.8% from estimates done in 2010. In 2010, the state had 8,791,894 residents. Ethnic categories in New Jersey comprise of 68.6% White Americans, 13.7% African Americans, 0.3% Native Americans, 8.3% Asian Americans, 6.4% other races and 2.7% Multiracial Americans. Latinos constitute 17.7% of the population, while Non-Hispanic Whites are 58.9% of the population. According to US Bureau of Labor Statics, there has been a rise of 204,000 people in nonfarm employment in October, 2013. The unemployment rate is at 7.3%. There has been a notable increment of employment in trade, technical services, health, manufacturing, and hospitality sectors. Out of the total population11.3 million people living i n New Jersey were unemployed by October 2013. There was an increase in number of temporal layoffs, as evidenced by an alarming figure of 448,000 people. Teenagers were the most affected by unemployment as they constituted 22.2% of unemployed population. Adult men accounted for 7% of unemployed population while women constituted 6.4%. Whites accounted for 6.3% of unemployed population while Hispanics constituted 6.8%. 13.1% of those who were unemployed were Blacks. Asians accounted for 5.2% of the unemployed population in New Jersey. More Whites are in white collar jobs, while most Blacks engage in manual jobs. Notably, statistics have changed slightly over the past twelve months.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Long term unemployment that is defined as job lasting for less than 27 weeks, increased to 4.1 million people in New Jersey. Long term unemployed residents constitute d 36.1% of total unemployment levels. There has been a decrease of 954,000 people who are unemployed in the state over the past 12 months. There has been a decrease in labor force of civilians over the past year, as evidenced by a decrease of 720,000 in October 2013. The decrease is interpreted as a 0.4% decline from month of September. There has been a decline in overall employment of 735,000 residents of New Jersey between September and October. Percentage of employment decline from September to October is 0.3%. The decline was attributed to a drop in employment in federal government sector. The level of part time employment slightly increased to 8.1 million in October. Part time workers were those who were unable to find full time jobs or had tight schedules and had to engage in economic generating activities. Labor force accounted for 2.3 million marginal attachments that had decreased from 2.4 million in the past 12 months. Those who were marginally attached could not be consid ered as unemployed. The decline in those marginally attached can be attributed to frustrations and discouragements. There was an increase in number of people who had been discouraged to find jobs over the year, since October recorded a figure of 815,000 people who never sought for jobs. There has been a notable increase of nonfarm employment over the past twelve months. Every month accounted for 190,000 employment growth. Despite the employment increase in October, government employment assumed a downward trend. Hospitality industry employed 53,000 people in October 2013. Twelve months recorded uniform growth of 29,000 jobs in food industry. Retail trade employment growth can be averaged at 31,000 jobs over the past twelve months. However in October, the industry recorded an increment of 44,000 jobs. The unemployment rates have been stagnant over the past twelve months. Despite the fact that there are high levels of unemployment, there is a difference in the percentage constituted b y different ethnic groups. The trend of 2013 seems to be a continuity of year 2012 that was characterized by high unemployment rates. Over the past one year unemployment population has reduced from 7.9% to 7.3% in New Jersey. There has been an increment of people who are not in labor force from 88,507 in October 2012 to 91,541 in October 2013.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Unemployment in New Jersey specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Total number of residents in New Jersey who want a job has decreased from 6,584 in October 2012 to 6,162 in October 2013. Participation rate has decreased over the year as evidenced by 68.8% in October 2012 and 62.8% in October 2013. The percentage of those employed has also reduced as evidenced by 58.7% in October 2012 and 58.3% in October 2013. There has been a rise in the number of those employed from 143,328 in October 2012 to 143,568 in October 2013 (Shierholz 18). There has be en a decline in participation rate of men aged between 16 and 19 years, as evidenced by 70.2% in October 2012 and 69.2% in October 2013. The number of those who are unemployed has decreased, as evidenced by 8% in October 2012 and 7.6% in October 2013. There have been insignificant changes in those who are employed over the year as evidenced by 76,027 in 0ctober 2012 and 76,074 in October 2013. The participation rate of men who are aged above 20 years has also decreased from 73% in October 2012 to 71.9% in October 2013. There has been insignificant change in this category of men who are employed over the past twelve months. Unemployment rate has dropped from 7.9% in October 2012 to 7.3% in October 2013. Participation rate of women aged between 16 and 19 years has dropped from 57.7% in October 2012 to 56. 9% in October 2013. Unemployment ratio reduced from 53.3% in October 2012 to 53% in October 2013. Unemployment rates of this category of women have dropped from 7.7% in October 2012 to 6.9% in October 2013. Participation rates of women who were above 20 years have declined from 59.4% in October 2012 to 58.5% in October 2013. Unemployment rate of these women have declined from 7.2 % in October 2012 to 6.4% in October 2013. There has been a decline of unemployment in non agricultural sector as evidenced by 7.5% in October 2012 and 7% in October 2013. The government sector has recorded increased unemployment levels over the last twelve months, as evidenced by 4.2% in October 2012 and 4.4% in October 2013. Similarly, agriculture sector has also recorded an increase in number of unemployed people as evidenced by 9.5% in October 2012 and 10.7% in October 2013. Unemployment in white collar jobs has decreased over the years, as evidenced by 8.1% in October 2012 and 7.5% in October 2013. Despite the fact that percentages may indicate that white collar sector is reducing the unemployment levels more than manual jobs, actual figure of unemployment is highest in white coll ar jobs. For instance, unemployment of white collar jobs is at 1,208 while that in agricultural sector is at 163 (Bivens and Fieldhouse 15).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Summary From above findings, there have been slight changes in the situation of labor force in New Jersey. Men are the most significant contributors to labor force in New Jersey. Despite the fact that there is a difference between participation rate of men aged between 16 and 19 years and those above 20 years, they collectively participate more in labor force than women. Variance between men and women in contribution to labor can be attributed to social as well as biological factors. For instance, women are expected to engage in many activities that are defined by the society, while men engage in income generating activities holistically. There is a variance between the participation rate of teens and adults. Despite the gender, adults participate more in labor force than teenagers. Low participation from teenagers can be attributed to the fact that most employers prefer experienced individuals to inexperienced ones. In this regard, adults have more work experience than teenagers he nce participate more in labor market. High unemployment rates of Black Americans can be attributed to social structures like racism that render the race vulnerable to exploitation and poor living conditions, including unemployment. Whites constitute lowest percentage of unemployment in New Jersey. Notably, most employees in white collar jobs are Whites. There are more Blacks in manual jobs than Whites and Asians. Percentage of Whites who are unemployed is higher than unemployed Whites. It should be noted that, Whites are the majority and representation of a percentage figure does not mean that there are more Asians employed than Whites (Algernon 12). Conclusion Labor is integral to economic situation of any region. Policies should focus on reducing levels of unemployment as much as possible, so as to maximize on the economic growth. Unemployment trends in New Jersey have not changed significantly over the past twelve months. Despite the fact that high unemployment levels can be attr ibuted to recession in 2009, necessary strategies should be adopted so as to remedy the situation. Unemployment in New Jersey assumes ethnic and age patterns. Generally, Whites, Latinos, and Blacks are still in employment crises in New Jersey. Focus should be on creation of more jobs and narrowing the gap between races. Collective approach in solving issue of unemployment is likely to increase levels of employment even more. More specific solutions that reduce percentage of unemployment of Blacks and Latinos should also be adopted. The effects of unemployment are devastating to victims and concerned region as well. Despite the fact that New Jersey has a stable economy, high unemployment is also evident. Works Cited Algernon, Austin. â€Å"Infrastructure Investments and Latino and African American Job Creation.† Economic Policy Institute Issue Brief. 352.1 (2013): 20-52. Bivens, Josh, and Andrew Fieldhouse. â€Å"When and What Kind of Deficit Reduction Matters Most: The Dange r of Aggressive 10-year Deficit Targets in the Current Budget Debate.† Working Economics. 3.2 (2013): 5-20. Web. Shierholz, Heidi. â€Å"Status Quo Is Not Good Enough.† Economic Policy Institute Economic Indicators. 16.1 (2013): 10-20. Web. Appendix Level of unemployment in New Jersey over the last twelve months. This essay on Unemployment in New Jersey was written and submitted by user Dylan George to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.